After the Boston Tea Party: Herbal Liberty Teas Suggested by Philo Aletheias on January 13, 1774

The Boston Tea Party is an iconic event in the history of the United States. The charismatic phrase, however, was appended at a later time. At the time, the momentous event was known as the Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor. A key incident in the maelstrom of British and colonial interactions, the Boston Tea Party, which took place on Thursday, December 16, 1773, was not solely about tea but was also motivated by concerns about colonial rights, such as “no taxation without representation.”

The dumping of around 600,000 pounds of Bohea tea, imported through the globally powerful East India Company from the Wuyi mountain range in northern Fujian province in southeast China, served as a symbolic protest against 

“. . . grievances and distresses with which his Majesty’s American subjects are oppressed . . . by a ruinous system of Colony Administration, adopted by the British Ministry about the year 1763, evidently calculated for enslaving these Colonies, and, with them, the British Empire.” (Constitutional Association, October 20, 1774, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)

Less than one month later, an article on the sensitive topic of tea appeared on the front page of the Thursday, January 13, 1774, issue of the Virginia Gazette. The author signed off under the pseudonym of Philo-Aletheias (Greek: φίλος, philos, “beloved, dear” + ἀλήθεια, aletheia, "truth"). The invective against black tea opened dramatically with a paraphrase of tea-bashing lines penned in 1728 by recently deceased British poet Edward Young (June 1681-April 5, 1765) in "Satire VI: On Women":

parody in Virginia Gazette:                                            "Satire VI: On Women":

Tea! how I tremble at the baneful name!                       Tea! How I tremble at thy fatal stream!

Like Lethe, fatal to the love of Fame.                             As Lethe dreadful to the Love of Fame.

The impassioned article began with a compelling question which situated the historical significance -- perceived at the time -- of the Boston Tea Party:

"Can Posterity believe that the constitutional Liberties of North America were on the Point of being given up for Tea? Is this exotick Plant necessary to Life? Or does our Health depend upon it? Just the reverse. . . ."

After citing such notable current and historical decriers against black tea drinking as Dutch botanist-humanist-physician Herman Boerhaave (December 31, 1668-September 23, 1738), Scottish physician-chemist William Cullen (April 15, 1710-February 5, 1790), and Swiss physician Samuel-Auguste Tissot (March 20, 1728-June 13, 1797), Philo-Aletheias launched into his own excoriation against the disdained custom:

". . . I am bold to say, I never saw a Man or Woman who from Youth was fond of and practised drinking Tea freely that was not rendered a weak, effeminate, and creeping Valetudinarian for life."

The criticism of Asiatic tea was couched in salutary terms as concern for the deleterious effects of tea drinking on physical and mental well-being. Yet, the real reason was derived from political concerns, for the imported tea

". . . not only destroys our Constitutions, but dangers our Liberty, and drains our Country of so many Thousand Pounds a Year . . ."

Nevertheless, rituals are difficult to abandon because they are entangled with habitual activities, which in turn provide some form of comfort and reassurance to their practitioners. In recognition of the strong grip of habit, Philo-Aletheias proposed a homegrown solution:

"But if we must, through Custom, have some warm Tea, once or twice a Day, why may we not exchange this slow Poison . . . for Teas of our American Plants; many of which may be found, pleasant to the Taste and very salutary, according to our various Constitutions."

Philo-Aletheias then listed seventeen tea blends as substitutes for imported tea. The suggested leaves and twigs were all from plants that were eminently familiar to colonial Americans. Considered a necessity in this New World, herb gardens provided produce for the daily pantry, decoration as flowers in the house, and medicine in sickness and in health. The family medicine cabinet was stocked with decoctions, dried leaves, infusions, and tinctures, which were consumed for general well-being as well as for specific complaints. Thus, these seventeen blends were easily available. So, instead of supplementing imported tea, these herbal concoctions would now replace them altogether.

Six blends, comprised of twelve herbs, are featured from this list. Each herb serves as a glimpse into colonial gardens at the time of the Boston Tea Party. Amazingly, many of these herbs are still familiar over two and one-third centuries later.

For me, they comprise my Liberty Tea garden, which reminds me every day of the liberties that early settlers in this vast, beautiful new land wanted to bequeath to all who ever live between America's shores.

Sassafras:

Sassafras albidum is commonly known as sassafras. Another popular scientific synonym is Sassafras officinale.

Sassafras albidum is a native of the eastern United States and the province of Ontario in east central Canada.

USDA Hardiness Zones:

Sassafras albidum is classified as hardy for zones 5 (-20° to -10°F.; -29° to -23°C) to 9 (20° to 30°F.; -7° to -1°C.).

Description: 

Sassafras reaches a height of 50 feet (15 meet), with a generous spread of 30 feet (9 meters).

Oval leaves, which usually are divided into three lobes, have downy undersides. Their dark greenness changes to gold and red in autumn.

Tiny, petalless yellow-green flowers open simultaneously with budding leaves in spring.

Fruits ripen as blue-black drupes, which, like peaches, are fleshy encasements of seed-containing pits.

Ethnobotany: 

Native American original inhabitants of the thirteen colonies extensively used sassafras as a therapeutic agent. Common remedies included:

• as a blood purifier by the Cherokee, Delaware, and Iroquois and
• as a febrifuge, to ward off fever, by the Iroquois and Nanticoke.

Lignum vitae:

Guaiacum officinale, commonly known as lignum vitae (Latin: lignum, "wood" + vitae, "of life") or tree of life, is a small, slow-growing, New World tree that is the  heaviest and densest wood in the world.

Its native range includes northern South America, the Caribbean, the Central American subcontinent, Mexico, and only Florida, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands in the United States.

Description:

Lignum vitae slowly reaches a height of 20 to 30 feet (6 to 10 meters), with a spread of 26 feet     (8 meters).

The bark is deeply furrowed.

Oval leaves are bright green.

Five-petaled flowers open as blue stars.

Each bright yellow-orange fruit contains two cells, each enclosing one black seed.

Ethnobotany:

In addition to a Liberty tea from bark raspings, or scrapings, lignum vitae supplies an energy restorative tea with its flowers and leaves.

For two centuries an important ethnobotanical remedy decocted -- that is, extracted essences by
boiling -- the bark to serve as an effective, albeit temporary, treatment of the symptoms of syphilis.

Ethnobotany: 

In addition to tea, which may be brewed with flowers and/or leaves, sweet marjoram is cultivated ethnobotanically for its essential oil, which is extracted by steaming the flowers.

• The oil, which is light yellow with a warm, spicy scent redolent of camphor, ages to dark brown.
• The oil's therapeutic qualities include antiseptic, expectorant, and a stimulant of the immune and circulatory systems.

Mint:

Mentha spicata, commonly known as spearmint, is a European native that has been successfully naturalized in the New World.

Spearmint is grown throughout the United States, with the exception of North Dakota, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.

The Canadian landscape -- with the exception of the eastern province of Labrador and Newfoundland and the three territories of Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon -- is decorated with spearmint.

USDA Hardiness Zone:

Mentha spicata is classified as hardy for zones 3 (-40 to -30°F.; -40 to -34°C.) to 10 (30 to 40°F.; -1 to 4°C.).

Description: 

Spearmint reaches a height of 4 inches (1.2 meters), with a generous spread of 3 to 6 feet (0.9 to 1.8 meters).

Wrinkled, ovate shaped leaves grow in pairs on opposite sides of the stem.

Cylindrical flowers open as white, pale mauve, or pink from mid-summer through autumn.

Ethnobotany: 

In addition to its culinary uses in tea and spices, spearmint is cultivated for its essential oil, which is extracted by steaming the plant's flowers. The United States supplies 70 percent of the 1,600 tons produced annually of spearmint oil.

Mainly incorporated as a scent or flavor in internal and external products, spearmint oil invigorates chewing gum, jellies, mouthwashes, and toothpastes with its menthol aftertaste and transmits a fresh, minty aroma to bath products, candles, and perfumes.

Therapeutically spearmint, which is milder than peppermint (Mentha x piperita), is preferred in remedies for children to relieve hiccoughs and as an antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative (antiflatulent), febrifuge, circulatory stimulant, and immune system booster.

Another ethnobotanical application is an effective insecticide against ants, flies, mosquitoes, and moths.

Philo-Aletheias notes that this blend is to be avoided during pregnancy.

• The reason, which was not given in his article, is that, as emmenagogues, Mother-of-Thyme and hyssop stimulate the flow of blood in the pelvic area and uterus and were historically used as abortifacients to induce abortions.

Mother of Thyme:

Thymus serpyllum, commonly known as Mother-of-Thyme or creeping thyme or wild thyme, is an Old World native that ranges naturally from northern European southward to northwestern Spain.

Other scientific synonyms are Thymus arcticus, Thymus drucei, and Thymus praecox.

USDA Hardiness Zones:

Thymus serpyllum is classified as hardy for zones 4 (-30 to -20°F.; -34 to -29°C.) to 9 (20 to 30°F.; -7 to -1°C.).

Description:

Mother-of-Thyme reaches a height of 1 to 4 inches (2.5 to 8 centimeters), with an exuberant spread of 36 inches (90 centimeters).

Thick mats of green, oval, hairy leaves fragrantly hug the ground.

Tiny flowers open in lavender-purple profusions from late spring to early autumn.

Ethnobotany: 

In addition to its colonial culinary uses as tea and in spices, Mother-of-Thyme was prized as a febrifuge by the Munsee (Minisink, "from the rocky land") Delaware, whose migrations during the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries led them from Delaware to Pennsylvania and finally to Ontario, Canada.

Hyssop:

Hyssopus officinalis, commonly known as hyssop, is native to southern and eastern Europe.

Originally introduced into eastern and central Canada and the northern and central United States, hyssop has become naturalized throughout temperate regions of North America.

USDA Hardiness Zone:

Hyssopus officinalis is classified as hardy for zones 3 (-40 to -30°F.; -40 to -34°C.) to 10 (30 to 40°F.; -1 to 4°C.).

Description:

Hyssop reaches a height of 18 to 24 inches (45 to 60 centimeters), with a spread of 12 inches (30 centimeters).

Its aromatic foliage has lance-shaped leaves.

Two-lipped flowers open as violet to blue spikes in late summer.

Ethnobotany: 

Hyssop's membership in the mint family (Lamiaceae) is detected in its minty, slightly bitter flavor.

• Culinary dishes receptive to hyssop's flavor include pies, salads, and stews.

Another ethnobotanical application of hyssop was as a therapeutic remedy.

• The Cherokee made a syrup of hyssop leaves and flowers for treatment of asthma, colds, and coughs.
• An infusion of steeped leaves was imbibed as a febrifuge to break fevers.

Traditionally hyssop has a worldwide reputation as a purifying herb and was placed in vases or suspended over windows or used as a broom to cleanse the air.

Hyssop is an essential ingredient in the manufacture of certain liqueurs, such as Absinthe, Benedictine, and Chartreuse.

Other ethnobotanical fortes are as an insect repellent against flea beetles (family Chrysomelidae) and cabbage moths (Mamestra brassicae) and most importantly in bath and beauty products, such as cologne, perfume, skin cleansers, and soap.

Sage:

Salvia officinalis, commonly known as common sage or garden sage or kitchen sage, is native to Spain, the Balkans, and North Africa.

Sage has become naturalized in southern Europe and has been introduced successfully into eastern Canada as well as into parts of the eastern and western United States.

USDA Hardiness Zones:

Salvia officinalis is classified as hardy for zones 5 (-20 to -10°F.; -29 to -23°C.) to 10 (30 to 40°F.; -1 to 4°C.).

Description:

Sage reaches a height of 30 inches (75 centimeters), with a spread of 36 inches (90 centimeters).

Aromatic, oblong, wrinkled leaves are grey green with white-haired undersides.

Flowers open in shades of pink and purple in summer.

Ethnobotany: 

In addition to its culinary uses in tea and as a temptingly fragrant spice, sage has a time-honored reputation as a therapeutic remedy.

In colonial America, the Cherokee applied an infusion from steeping sage as an antidiarrheal, diaphoretic (perspirative), expectorant, laxative, and sedative.

• A syrup was also concocted from sage leaves and honey as a respiratory aid to treat asthma.

In Connecticut the Mohegan chewed fresh leaves for general wellbeing and made a tonic from green or dried sage leaves as a restorative.

Noted English gardener-diarist-writer John Evelyn (October 31, 1620-February 27, 1706) pertinently extolled sage's virtues:

"In short, 'tis a Plant endu'd with so many and wonderful Properties, as that the assiduous use of it is said to render Men Immortal. . ." (A Discourse of Sallets, p. 163)

Balm:

Monarda didyma, commonly known as bee balm or bergamot or Oswego tea or scarlet bee balm, is a New World native.

Bee balm occurs natively in Canada in the eastern provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec and in the east-central province of Ontario.

In the United States bee balm decorates the eastern landscape as far west as the midwestern states of Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri and as far south as Georgia and Tennessee.

Two disjunct native populations are found in the northwestern coast states of Washington and Oregon.

USDA Hardiness Zones:

Monarda didyma is classified as hardy for zones 4 (-30 to -20°F.; -34 to -29°C.) to 9 (20 to 30°F.; -7 to -1°C.).

Description: 

Bee balm reaches a height of 3 to 4 feet (0.9 to 1.2 meters), with a spread of 24 to 40 inches (60 to 100 centimeters).

Serrated, downy leaves often have red-purple tints.

Flowerheads open in red shades in summer.

Bee balm tea acquired the name of Oswego tea in deference to the branch of Iroquois from western New York who acquainted the colonists with the fragrant concoction of Monarda didymus flowers and leaves.

• The tea's aroma is citrusy and reminiscent of the Earl Grey blend of tea.
• Earl Grey owes its distinctive aroma to its essential ingredient, the rind of the bergamot orange (Citrus bergamia).
• Monarda didymus' common name of bergamot recognizes the similar aroma.

Ethnobotany: 

In addition to its renowned culinary use as a tea, bee balm garnishes salads with its spectacular flowers and delicious leaves.

As a therapeutic remedy, the Cherokee applied a poultice as an analgesic aid for headaches and as a cold remedy.

An infusion from steeped leaves was used to treat heart trouble and nosebleeds and also as a febrifuge and as a gastrointestinal aid.

Rosemary:

Rosmarinus officinalis, commonly known as rosemary, is a popular cosmetic, culinary, and therapeutic herb that is native to alkaline hills around the Mediterranean Sea.

Captain John Mason (1586 - 1635), who founded the Province of New Hampshire in 1629, is credited with introducing rosemary into New England.

Captain Mason, who was Proprietary Governor of Cuper's Cove Colony on Newfoundland's Avalon Peninsula from 1615 to 1621, was appointed as the first Vice-Admiral of New England in 1635 but passed away in England during preparations for his first voyage to the Province.

USDA Hardiness Zones:

Rosmarinus officinalis is classified as hardy for zones 6 (-10 to 0°F.; -23 to -18°C.) to 11 (40 to 50°F.; 4 to 10°C.).

Description:

In the wild, rosemary reaches a height of 7 feet (2 meters), with a spread of 6 feet (1.8 meters).

Aromatic, dark green needle-shaped leaves have silvery undersides.

Two-lipped flowers open exquisitely as blue or pink-lilac or white in spring to early summer.

Ethnobotany: 

In addition to its culinary use in tea and as a spice, rosemary is treasured in potpourri. Also rosemary is valued as:

• an insect repellent,
• a cabbage moth (Mamestra brassicae) repellent in companion planting,
• a disinfectant,
• an appetite stimulant,
• a digestive aid, and
• a restorative of speech after a stroke.

Rosemary's reputation as a memory enhancer was poetically recognized by Elizabethan playwright
William Shakespeare (c. April 1564 - April 23, 1616), whose tragic heroine Ophelia sadly observes:

"There's rosemary, that's for remembrance; pray, love, remember . . ." (Hamlet, Act 4, scene v)

The strength of rosemary's distinctive, woodsy scent in the wild was extolled by English philosopher-statesman-scientist Sir Francis Bacon (January 22, 1561–April 9, 1626):

"It is true, that some woods of oranges, and heaths of rosemary, will smell a great way into the sea, perhaps twenty miles. . ."

("834: Experiment solitary touching the corporeal substance of smells," Natural History: Century IX)

Lavender:

Lavandula angustifolia, commonly known as English lavender, is native to the Mediterranean region. Other scientific synonyms are Lavandula officinalis, Lavandula pyrenaica, Lavandula spica, and Lavandula vera.

USDA Hardiness Zones:

Lavandula angustifolia is classified as hardy for zones 5 (-20 to -10°F.; -29 to -23°C.) to 10 (30 to 30°F.; -1 to 4°C.).

Description:

English lavender reaches a height of 2 to 3 feet (0.6 to 0.9 meters), with a spread of 4 feet (1.2 meters).

Narrow, slightly downy leaves are grey.

Spikes of deep purple flowers fragrantly open in early summer.

Just as it was integrated into the English landscape, lavender was also considered an essential plant for the American colonies.

• Lavender figured prominently in Colonial gardens, beginning with early American botanist-horticulturist John Bartram (March 23, 1699-September 22, 1777), a Quaker whose garden of 8-acres (32,000 square miles; 82,880 square kilometers) in Kingsessing  -- now a neighborhood in southwestern Philadelphia -- was founded as the first botanic garden in America in 1728.
• In fact, with Bartram's appointment in 1765 as Botanizer Royal for America by King George III (June 4, 1738-January 29, 1820), he henceforth sent duplicates of every seed and plant already in his garden and from his ongoing collecting to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Ethnobotany: 

As a tea, lavender, known for promoting relaxation through its soothing fragrance, has long been used as a headache remedy. Other culinary uses include:

• as a floral garnish in salads,
• as a flavoring in baked goods or ice cream, and
• as an ingredient in salt, sugar, or syrup.

For overall well-being, English botanist John Gerard (1545-1611/1612) recommended daily consumption of "Conserves of Lavender," a preserve of lavender steeped in sugar that is deliciously aromatic, fragrantly tasty, and visually stunning.

Other ethnobotanical uses of lavender include aromatherapy and massage therapy as well as bath, beauty, and household products, such as in candles, potpourri, and moth repellents.

Lavender's renowned qualities as an antiseptic and an insect repellent account for its success during the Great Plague of London, 1665 to 1666, in warding off the flea-transmitted Black Death from those who attached bunches of lavender to their wrists.

• Later lavender's forte as an antiseptic apparently compelled its inclusion as one of seven essential ingredients -- along with greater wormwood (Artemesia absinthum), lesser wormwood (Artemesia pontica), mint (Mentha), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), rue (Ruta), and sage (Salvia) -- in a vinegar infusion that effectively immunized against the bubonic plague that ravaged Marseilles on France's southeast coast in 1720.

Throughout lavender's plenteous applications and uses, the attribute that predominates is its intrinsically winsome fragrance. Even a hint of lavender beguiles while it heals.

"Golden Rod and Betony. A Tea of these, drank with Honey, are highly corroborative and detersive, to cleanse Ulcers in the Lungs, and Wounds of the Breast, Palsies, &c."

Sweet goldenrod:

Solidago odora, commonly known as anise-scented goldenrod or fragrant goldenrod or sweet goldenrod, is a New World native which is found in the eastern United States with a northernmost range in New Hampshire and Vermont. From New England its natural distribution extends southward through Florida and westward through Ohio, Tennessee, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Texas.

Description: 

Sweet goldenrod reaches a height of 2 to 4 feet (0.6 to 1.2 meters), with a spread of 1 to 2 feet (0.3 to 0.6 meters).

Lance-shaped leaves are dark green with translucent dots.

• An aroma redolent of anise (Pimpinella anisum) is emitted when leaves are disturbed, for example, by bruising, crushing, or rubbing.

Daisy-like flowers open in plume-like yellow clusters from late summer into autumn. Appearing in rows on the upper side of branching stems, flowers are one-sided.

Fuzzy seedheads, which are pale grey, contain tiny, brown nutlets, each enclosing one seed.

Ethnobotany: 

Sweet goldenrod leaves impart a fragrance similar to French tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) to tea during brewing.

• This flavor also was captured from leaves and flowers as an additive to cloak the taste of disagreeable medicines.

Sweet goldenrod was respected by Native Americans for its flavorful ethnobotanical applications.

The Cherokee infused the fragrant leaves to treat colds, coughs, fevers, measles, and tuberculosis.

• Roots were chewed to heal sore mouths.
• Neuralgia was treated by holding an infusion of the root in the mouth.

In the twentieth century, the role of Solidago odora after the Boston Tea Party was cited as one of the reasons for its designation on June 24, 1996 as the official herb of the state of Delaware:

". . . .Whereas, Sweet Golden Rod has many associations with American history and culture, not the least of which is that, following the Boston Tea Party . . . when Americans . . . turned to herbal tea made from Sweet Golden Rod as a substitute, calling it "Liberty Tea. . . ."

(70 Del. Laws, c. 386, § 1.)

Betony:

Stachys officinalis, commonly known as betony or bishop’s wort or purple betony or wood betony, is a perennial that is a European native. Another scientific synonym is Betonica officinalis.

USDA Hardiness Zones:

Stachys officinalis is classified as hardy for zones 5 (-20 to -10°F.; -29 to -23°C.) to 8 (10 to 20°F.; -12 to -7°C.).

Description:

Betony reaches a height of 12 to 36 inches (30 to 90 centimeters), with a spread of 18 to 36 inches (45 to 90 centimeters).

Oblong, medium green leaves are wrinkled.

Flowers open in white or purple or red pink spikes from early summer into early autumn.

Ethnobotany:

In tea, betony bears a resemblance to black tea. This similar flavor was cherished by those American colonists who especially missed the black tea to which they had become accustomed.

Traditionally, betony has a long-respected stature as a soothing and calming ingredient in therapeutic remedies. Its applications range from healing colds to treating asthma, bronchitis, headaches, kidney stones, palpitations, and seizures as well as warding off supernatural spirits.

As a powder consumed prior to excessive alcohol consumption, betony was lauded as counteracting drunkenness.

Betony was revered in medieval medical matters as an elixir to promote overall well-being and extolled as a cure for any and all complaints.

Philo-Aletheias noted that many more tea substitutes could be listed but a fear of being perceived as tedious compelled resting this case for herbal teas. In conclusion, the only objection perceived by the author was that

". . . in such a Variety different Tastes or Circumstances would require . . . too many Pots for the Tea Table, and some Trouble. . . ."

Nevertheless, Philo-Aletheias immediately countered:

". . . Teapots are not very dear, and (Thanks to Heaven) we have no unconstitutional Tax laid on them yet. Water is plenty, Sideboards may be had; and, if Teapots fail, what Hardship is it for some to make their own Teas in Mugs or Tankards!"

Moreover, Philo-Aletheias noted that those "Gentlemen and Ladies of the first Rank" who replace this "pernicious Custom of drinking the Asiatick Teas" with consumption of homegrown herbal substitutes

". . .will have the Self-pleasing Satisfaction of having emancipated their Country from the basest Slavery and Tyranny of Custom, and erecting a Monument to Common Sense, which will merit the Praise of unborn Generations."

Those who converted to herbal tea substitutes were fortified by their conviction in the rightness of their cause. Liberty teas were brewed throughout the thirteen colonies.

After independence was gained on July 4, 1776, the importation of teas from China and India was resumed. In some homes in the new country herbal teas were relegated back to the family medicine cabinet. On the other hand, these Liberty teas were permanently adopted by many others, who maintained the habit either as a reminder of the pioneer American spirit or as a beverage of choice which they had learned to appreciate. Philo-Aletheias chose well the quintessentially American character of these Liberty teas.

The intrinsic value of Liberty teas is underscored by the fact that not one of these ingredients has been forgotten, for they all continue to offer enjoyment or healing as a variety of products not only in the United States but also worldwide.

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

c. 1903 photomechanical print (postcard) : color: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Boston_Tea_Party_cph.3b53084.jpg; No known restrictions on publication, via Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Online Catalog (PPOC) @ https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2002719851/

near the Fort Point Channel at the corner of Atlantic Avenue and Seaport Boulevard: CaribDigita, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boston_Tea_Party_Plaque_-_Independence_Wharf_2009.jpg

engraving in W.D. Cooper's History of North America (1789), between pages 60-61: No known restrictions on publication, via Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Online Catalog (PPOC) @ https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2002718863/

"Destruction of Tea in Boston Harbor"
1846 hand-colored lithograph by Nathaniel Currier (March 27, 1813-November 20, 1888)
Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Popular Graphic Arts Collection: No known restrictions on publication, via Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Online Catalog (PPOC) @ https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/91795889/

east facade of John Bartram House with Bartram's Garden: Joel T. Fry (Jtfry at English Wikipedia), CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bartram_House_May_2002c.jpg

Tiadaghton State Forest, near Lock Haven, north central Pennsylvania: Nicholas A Tonelli (Nicholas_T), CC BY 2.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/nicholas_t/8087968008/

SAAL5: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, via USDA PLANTS Database @ https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=SAAL5&mapType;=nativity

all three major lobe variants (three-lobed; unlobed elliptical; two-lobed) on one sassafras branch; Franklin, southeastern Virginia; May 22, 2010: Rlevse, CC BY SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sassafras_albidum_3_lobe_variations_B.JPG

GUOF: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, via USDA PLANTS Database @ https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=GUOF&mapType;=nativity

Veermata Jijabai Bhonsale Udyan (formerly Victoria Gardens), Byculla, South Mumbai, Maharashtra, west central peninsular India: Jayesh Patil, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Guaiacum_officinale.jpg

Origanum majorana's aromatic leaves and cup-shaped flowers: J.P.C. (HeXeNeSi, CC BY-SA 2.0), via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/hexenesi/3666606056/

opposite leaf arrangement: Emilia Karbownik (Dobromila), CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Majeranek2.jpg

Antwerp, northeastern Belgium: followtheseinstructions, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/followtheseinstructions/5895880931/

farmers' market, Rochester, southeastern Minnesota: Jonathunder, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FreshMint.jpg

Mentha spicata spike of four-lobed flowers, with four long stamens extending from each flower: Miguel303xm, CC BY-SA 2.5, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flowers_of_the_spearmint.JPG

Mother-of-thyme (Thymus serpyllum) flowers
raceme of tubular, four-lobed flowers, each with notched upper lobe: Joan Simon, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/simonjoan/224796002/

Bucey_lès-Gy, Haute-Saône department, Franche-Comté region, northeastern France: J.F. Gaffard, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thymus_serpyllum1.jpg

Four stamens extend from each flower: Szabi237, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thymus_serpillum.JPG

hyssop's (Hyssopus officinalis) inflorescence
Botanical Garden KIT, Karlsruhe, Baden-Württemberg state, southwestern Germany: H. Zell, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hyssopus_officinalis_002.JPG

absinthe's culinary apparel: Eric Litton, CC BY-SA 2.5, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Absinthe-glass.jpg

sage (Salvia officinalis) flowers
Botanical Garden KIT, Karlsruhe, Baden-Württemberg state, southwestern Germany: H. Zell, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Salvia_officinalis_003.JPG

Salvia officinalis leaves
Conservatoire National des Plantes à Parfum, Milly-la-Forêt, Essonne department, Île-de-France region, northern France: Liné1, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Salvia_officinalis_02_by_Line1.JPG

1689 oil on canvas by Sir Godfrey Kneller (August 8, 1646 – November 7, 1723): Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:JohnEvelyn1687.jpg

MODI: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, via USDA PLANTS Database @ https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=MODI&mapType;=nativity

Nevin Lake, Bullitt County, "The Knobs" region, central Kentucky; Friday, June 30, 2006, 11:49: Joe Schneid (JMSchneid), Louisville, Kentucky, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RubyThroatedHummingbird.jpg

sparkling elegance of glass tea cups: Laura D'Alessandro (flossyflotsam), CC BY 2.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/flossyflotsam/5564168683/

rosemary's evergreen, fragrant, needle-like leaves and tubular, two-lipped flowers: THOR, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rosmarinus_officinalis133095382.jpg

Charles Wesley Tuttle, Capt. John Mason (1887), opposite page 409: Public Domain, via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/cihm_03781/page/n442/mode/1up?view=theater

Cobbe portrait, assumed to be William Shakespeare, c. 1595 - 1610 painting on oak panel: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cobbe_portrait_of_Shakespeare.jpg

National Portrait Gallery, London: Transferred from British Museum, 1879: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Francis_Bacon,_Viscount_St_Alban_from_NPG_%282%29.jpg

Lavandula angustifolia
Karlsruhe, Baden-Württemberg state, southwestern Germany: H. Zell, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lavandula_angustifolia_003.JPG

Harper's New Monthly Magazine, Vol. LX, No. CCCLVI (February 1880), p. 322: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:John_bartram00.jpg

Pertuis, Vaucluse department, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, southeastern France: Véronique Pagnier, CC BY SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Miel_de_lavande_Label_Rouge.JPG

understory and rangeland plants: Solidago odora seeds in October: James H. Miller, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org, CC BY 3.0 U.S., via Forestry Images @ https://www.forestryimages.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=1120251

understory and rangeland plants: September: James H. Miller & Ted Bodner, Southern Weed Science Society, Bugwood.org, CC BY 3.0 U.S., via Forestry Images @ https://www.forestryimages.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=1120250

seeds of anise plant (Pimpinella anisum): David Monniaux (David.Monniaux), CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fichier:Aniseed_p1160018.jpg

Solidago odora
Jacob Bigelow, American Medical Botany, Vol. I, Plate XX, opposite page 187: uwdigital collections, CC BY 2.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/uwdigicollec/3528518644/; Public Domain, via Biodiversity Heritage Library @ https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2955783

Two-lipped Stachys officinalis flowers have three lobes, with central lobe as the largest, and top square, stiff stems.: Joan Simon, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/simonjoan/2484350126/

Stachys officinalis leaves are long, with toothed margins.: Ettore Balocchi, CC BY 2.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/29882791@N02/8304626508

Silver teapot made, 1773, by Paul Revere (December 21, 1734 – May 10, 1818): Daderot, Public Domain, Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Teapot,_1773,_Paul_Revere_silver_collection,_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7635.JPG

one of three ships (Beaver, Dartmouth, Eleanor) relieved of tea chests Monday, Nov. 29, 1773: Kevin Dooley (kevin dooley), CC BY 2.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/pagedooley/866996487/

"Engrav'd for the Pennsylva. magazine" v. 1, 1775, page 29: Public Domain, via Library of Congress Map Collection @ https://www.loc.gov/item/gm71005469/

Beaver, labelled 1 (center right), was one of three ships relieved of tea cargo almost five years later.: Boston Public Library, CC BY 2.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/24029425@N06/2885434574/

"2012 USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map." United States Department of Agriculture / Agricultural Research Station. USDA.gov. Web. planthardiness.ars.usda.gov

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Bacon, Francis (Sir). Sylva Sylvarum, or A Natural History in Ten Centuries. Whereunto is newly added, The History Natural and Experimental of Life and Death, or of the Prolongation of Life. London: Printed by J.R. for William Lee, 1670.

• Available via Biodiversity Heritage Library at: http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/31556767
• Available via Internet Archive at: https://archive.org/details/sylvasylvarumorn00baco
• Available via Internet Archive at: https://archive.org/details/sylvasylvarumorn02baco

Beresford-Kroeger, Diana. Arboretum America: A Philosophy of the Forest. Ann Arbor MI: University of Michigan Press, 2003.

Bigelow, Jacob. American Medical Botany, Being a Collection of the Native Medicinal Plants of the United States, Containing Their Botanical History and Chemical Analysis, and Properties and Uses in Medicine, Diet and the Arts, with Coloured Engravings. Vol. I. Boston: Cummings and Hilliard, 1817.

• Available via Biodiversity Heritage Library at: http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/21877
  

Castleman, Michael. The New Healing Herbs: The Classic Guide to Nature’s Best Medicines. Emmaus PA: Rodale, 2001.

Christman, Steve. “Origanum majorana.” Floridata > Plant Profile List. Last updated 10/30/03. Floridata.com LC. Web. www.floridata.com

• Available at: http://www.floridata.com/ref/o/orig_maj.cfm

Colonial Dames of America. Herbs and Herb Lore of Colonial America. Mineola NY: Dover Publications, 1995.

Colonial Dames of America. Simples, Superstitions & Solace: Plant Material Used in Colonial Living. Wethersfield CT: Grounds Committee of the National Society of the Colonial Dames of America in the State of Connecticut, 1970.

Cooper, W.D. The History of North America. London: E. Newberry, 1789

de Sounin, Léonie. Magic In Herbs. New York: Pyramid Books, 1972

Dolmetsch, Joan D. Rebellion and Reconciliation: Satirical Prints on the Revolution at Williamsburg. Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1976.

Evelyn, John. Acetaria: Discourse of Sallets. London: B. Tooke, 1699.

• Second edition available via Biodiversity Heritage Library at: http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/21877

Fox, Helen Morganthau. Gardening with Herbs for Flavor and Fragrance. New York: Macmillan, 1933.

Hatfield, Audrey Wynne. A Complete Culinary Herbal. Wellingborough, UK: Thorsons Publishers Ltd., 1978.

“Herbal Teas.” Celtic Book of Shadows. Last edited December 8, 2008. Wikidot.com. celticbookofshadows.wikidot.com

• Available at: http://celticbookofshadows.wikidot.com/herbal-teas

Hussey, Jane Strickland. “Some Useful Plants of Early New England.” Economic Botany, Volume 28, Issue 3 (July-September, 1974): 311-337.

Lis-Balchin, Maria, ed. Lavender: The Genus Lavandula. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2002.

Marcin, Marietta Marshall. The Complete Book of Herbal Teas. New York: Congdon & Weed, 1983.

Marden, Michael Patrick. Concealed Authorship on the Eve of the Revolution: Pseudonymity and the American Periodical Public Sphere, 1766-1776. Master of Arts Thesis. Columbia MO: University of Missouri-Columbia, July 2009.

• Available at: https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/6477/research.pdf?
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McMullan, Philip S., Jr. "A Role for Sassafras in the Search for the Lost Colony." The Lost Colony Center for Science and Research > Beechland Folklore & Research > Research Papers. The Lost Colony Center for Science and Research. Web. www.lost-colony.com

• Available at: http://www.lost-colony.com/Philpaper.pdf

Moerman, Daniel E. Native American Medicinal Plants: An Ethnobotanical Dictionary. Portland OR: Timber Press, 2009.

Morrison, Robert. A Dictionary of the Chinese Language in Three Parts. Part the First; Containing Chinese and English Arranged According to the Keys; Part the Second: Chinese and English Arranged Alphabetically, and Part the Third, Consisting of English and Chinese. Part II Volume I. Macao: East India Co. Press, 1819.

• Available via Internet Archive at: https://archive.org/details/p2dictionaryofch01morruoft

"Nos. 804: Historical painting, Destruction of Tea, Boston Harbor, Dec. 16th, 1773." Catalogue of Museum: 69. In: Ancient and Honorable Artillery Society of Massachusetts, Historical Sketch of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Society of Massachusetts Chartered 1638 and Catalogue of Museum of the Company. Boston MA: Poole Printing Company, 1914.

Philo-Aletheias. “Tea.” Virginia Gazette, January 13, 1774 (Number 1162): 1.

• Available at: http://research.history.org/DigitalLibrary/VirginiaGazette/VGImagePopup.cfm?ID=4016&Res=HI

Pyle, Howard. "Bartram and His Garden." Harper's New Monthly Magazine, Vol. LX, No. CCCLVII (February 1880): 321 - 330.

• Available at: http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=harp&cc=harp&idno=harp0060-3&node=harp0060-3%3A1&view=image&seq=331&size=100

Rohde, Eleanour Sinclair. The Old English Herbals. London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1922.

• Available via Biodiversity Heritage Library at: http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/23826487
• Available via Project Gutenberg at: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33654/33654-h/33654-h.htm

“Rosemary.” Sunland Herbs > Medicinal Herbs. Sunland Herbs. Web. www.sunlandherbs.com

• Available at: http://www.sunlandherbs.com/about/all-about-rosemary/

"Royal Garrison Church - Captain John Mason." Memorials & Monuments InPortsmouth > Memorials > Location Index / Locations / Churches and Cathedrals. Tim Backhouse / Community Internet Service. Web. memorials.inportsmouth.co.uk

• Available at: http://memorials.inportsmouth.co.uk/churches/royal_garrison/mason.htm

Saunders, Charles Francis. Useful Wild Plants of the United States and Canada. Illustrated by Photographs, and by Numerous Line Drawings by Lucy Hamilton Aring. New York: Robert M. McBride & Co., 1920.

• Available via Biodiversity Heritage Library at: http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/19998894
• Available via Biodiversity Heritage Library at: http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/38294554

Tabor, Roger. “Pilgrims Taking Herbs to America.” The Herb Society > Herbs in History. 2003. The Herb Society. Web. www.herbsociety.org.uk

• Available at: http://www.herbsociety.org.uk/hh-pilgrim-herbs.htm

"A Series of Historical Paintings." The Two Hundred and Sixty-Fifth Annual Record of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts, 1902-1903: 99-103. Boston: Alfred Mudge & Son, 1903.

Tuttle, Charles Wesley. Captain John Mason, the Founder of New Hampshire. Including His Tract On Newfoundland, 1620; The American Charters In Which He Was A Grantee; With Letters And Other Historical Documents. Together With A Memoir. Boston MA: The Prince Society, 1887.

• Available via HathiTrust at: http://hdl.handle.net/2027/nnc1.0111935561
• Available via Internet Archive at: https://archive.org/details/captjohnmasonfo00tuttgoog/
• AAvailable via Internet Archive at: https://archive.org/stream/cihm_03781#page/n7/mode/2up

Valnet, Jean. L'Aromathérapie: Traitement des Maladies par les Essences des Plantes. Paris: Le Livre de Poche, 1964.