Daucus carota: From Wild Dark Carrot to Cultivated Orange Carrot

Daucus carota subspecies carota is commonly known as bird’s nest, bishop’s lace, Queen Anne’s lace, or wild carrot (Greek: καρότον, karōton, “carrot,” from Proto- Indo-European ker-, “horn, head”).

Daucus carota is in the family Apiaceae. This family is synonymously known also by an older family name, Umbelliferae, which recognizes that the plants in this family generally display an inflorescence (Latin: inflorescere, “to come to flower”), that is, flowering, that has the shape of an umbel (Latin: umbra, “shade, shadow,” from Greek όμβρος, ómbros, “storm”), which is an umbrella shape.

An umbel is formed by numerous pedicels (Latin: pediculus, “footstalk,” diminutive of pes, “foot”), that is, stalks, radiating out, like an umbrella’s ribs, in equal lengths from a central stem, which is termed a peduncle (Latin: pedunculus, “footstalk,” diminutive of pes, “foot”). Umbellate inflorescence is classed as racemose (Latin: racemus, “cluster, bunch,” akin to Greek ῥάξ, rhax, “grape”) because flowering occurs in clusters.

Daucus is one of the largest genera (Latin: genus, “descent, family,” Greek cognate: γένος, genos, "race, stock, kin") in the family Apiaceae (Umbelliferae). Daucus comprises about twenty-five species. Of this genus, Daucus carota has widespread distribution throughout the world’s inhabited continents (excluding, of course, Antarctica) and is considered to be an undesirable weed, for example, in the United States and in Australia. Other Daucus species have narrower geographic distribution, mostly occurring in the Mediterranean.

One of the most famous members of Daucus carota species is the domesticated carrot, the ubiquitous vegetable which was cultivated from a subspecies, Daucus carota subspecies sativus. There are two types of cultivated carrots, eastern/Asiatic and western, which differ in color. Roots of eastern carrots are yellow or, if containing the pigment anthocyanin (Greek: ἀνθός, anthos, “flower” + κυανός, kyanos, “blue”), red purple, and foliage is grey-green with bolt, i.e., flower prematurely. Western carrots have orange, red, yellow, or white roots with green foliage that only bolts in extended periods of low temperatures.

The nativity of the two types of cultivated carrots is thought to differ. Eastern carrots are traced either specifically to the Hindu Kush region of Afghanistan or generally to the Inner Asiatic Center, which comprises Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and western Tian Shan (Chinese: 天山, Tiān Shān, “celestial mountains”) in Central Asia. Western carrots are attributed to central Asia Minor (Greek: Μικρὰ Ἀσία, Mikrá Asía, "small Asia"), which denotes much of modern Turkey.

Carrot and other vegetable seeds dating back to 2000 to 3000 B.C. have been found in Switzerland and southern Germany. Nevertheless, evidence of carrot cultivation before the tenth century is unclear because of historical confusion of terms for carrots and their similar relatives, parsnips (Pastinaca sativa), which have pale yellow to off-white roots. For this reason, references in classical Greek and Roman documents cannot be definitively determined. Genetically allowance is made for the early existence of wild carrots in the Mediterranean region west of Turkey.

Purple, red, or yellow prevailed as carrot colors from the time of their appearance in the tenth century all the way up to the seventeenth century.

Carrots were cultivated in Iran in the tenth century and have remained a vital ingredient in Persian cuisine. In fact, lingering proof of the versatile vegetable’s historical importance is evinced in the country’s geographic nomenclature. Plain of Carrots, Dashte Havij (Persian: dashte, “plain” + havij, “carrot”), is located in northern Iran near the village of Afjeh, which is 7874 feet (2400 meters) above sea level. Afjeh is located in Shemiran (Persian: cham, “cold” + ran, “slope”), the northernmost district of Iran’s capital city of Tehran (Persian: tah, “under” + ran, “town, place”), on the slopes of the Alborz Mountain Range. High peaks, such as Atash Kooh (Persian: atash, “fire” + kooh, “mountain”), with a height of 12,631 feet (3850 meters) and Mehr Chal at 12, 861 feet (3920 meters), that rim the plain provide a spectacular backdrop. Carrots historically were planted and grown on the plain. Nowadays other crops such as cherry orchards are cultivated there.

Carrots appeared in Syria and North Africa in the eleventh century. European introduction most likely occurred in Spain by way of North Africa in the twelfth century. Italy in the west and China in the east welcomed carrots in the thirteenth century, followed by France, Germany, and The Netherlands in the fourteenth century. Carrots crossed the English Channel to England by the fifteenth century. Carrots accompanied English settlers to Jamestown, Virginia in the seventeenth century. Carrots presumably arrived in Japan in the seventeenth century but they were first reported there in the eighteenth century.

Although Persian and Arabian cuisine favored purple carrots over yellow, which were considered of inferior quality, by the seventeenth century orange, white, and yellow carrots were standard in northern Europe. A concern over purple carrots was the unappetizing purple color that oozed throughout cookery featuring carrots.

The timeline for the development of the familiar orange rooted carrots is unclear. Correlating the dating of the selection for orange in carrots with the appearance in European oil paintings has been suggested. Generally, Dutch oil paintings began depicting orange carrots in the early seventeenth century.

Nevertheless, a sixteenth century painting by Italian artist Vincenzo Campi appears to include orange carrots.

The first written documentation of orange carrots in the Netherlands occurred in 1721 with descriptions of the ‘Long Orange’ and ‘Horn’ varieties. The Long Orange Dutch is the progenitor of the orange Horn carrot varieties (Early Scarlet Horn, Early Half Long, Late Half Long), from which all modern western carrots descend. The Horn carrot is named for the Dutch town of Hoorn, which is located in the province of North Holland (Dutch: Noord-Holland) in the northwestern Netherlands.

About that time as well, white-rooted carrots were first mentioned in Holland. Orange carrots were first mentioned in Germany in 1740 with ‘Brunswick,’ possibly a ‘Long Orange’ cultivar, and in France in 1775. ‘Altringham,’ an English orange cultivar with an unknown origin, was first described in 1834.

The origin of orange rooted carrots remains imprecise and is undecided mainly between two geographical points.

According to the artistic and written record referenced above, orange roots could have been selectively developed in the Netherlands.

On the other hand, free hybridization between subspecies of wild carrots in the Mediterranean is considered as a possible progenitor (Latin: progenitor, “ancestor”). Specifically, the natural crossbreeding of Daucus carota subspecies carota from central Europe with Daucus carota subspecies maxima from the Mediterranean could have occurred through free hybridization because of geographic co-occurrence. Mediterranean Europe, Asia Minor, and Afghanistan are all possibilities for the geographic location of this free hybridization: in particular, Turkey’s vast Anatolian area (Greek: Ἀνατολή, Anatolē, "east, [sun]rise"), which was --- and still remains today --- one of the most important crossroads between Central Asia, the Mediterranean, and northern Europe. Moreover, great diversity in carrot cultivation has been recognized in Anatolia. However, no specific references to orange carrots have been made prior to their emergence in seventeenth century Holland.

Thus, the origin of orange carrots remains an unanswered question, an unsolved mystery.

A carrot's orange color derives from selectively emphasizing carrots' abundant carotenes, several related orange or yellow hydrocarbons comprising one of six photosynthetic pigments (yellow, gray-brown, yellow-brown, blue-green, yellow-green) which occur naturally in green plants. Beta carotene (β-Carotene), the most common form of carotene, often constituting 50 percent or more of the total carotenoid content, is red orange and is the specific contributor to orange coloring in fruits and vegetables. Beta-carotene is one of the primary sources for humans of provitamin A, meaning that through consumption it is convertible by humans into retinoids, chemical compounds related to vitamin A. One such retinoid is retinal, which is required by the retina, on the inner surface of the eye, for color vision and for scotopic (Greek: σκότος, skotos, “darkness”), i.e., low light, vision. Alphacarotene (α-carotene), the second most common carotene, also influences orange-yellow coloring. (Another carotenoid, lycopene, is responsible for red rooted-carrots.)

Interestingly, distribution of carotenoids is not uniform throughout the root. Rather, carotene concentration decreases downwards from the shoulder (upper portion) to the tip.

In 1997 China edged past Europe as the world leader in commercial carrot production. The United Kingdom leads Europe in carrot production, followed by France, and the Netherlands. Other significant producers include Germany, Poland, Russia, and the United States. Significant South American producers include Argentina and Brazil.

As a biennial (Latin: bi-, “two, twice, double” + annus, “year”), carrots complete their life cycle in two years. Their natural life cycle is observed in temperate climates, which is where they are largely grown. Subtropical regions raise carrots as annuals (Latin: annus, "year"), compressing their life cycle within one season or one year.

Carrots are primarily grown as fresh produce, followed by canned and then frozen offerings.

Worldwide seed production: Top distribution sites

Favorable features for seed production sites include dry summer weather, adequate irrigation water, low incidence of wild carrots, and overwintering. In the United States the Pacific Northwest, encompassing eastern Oregon and Washington, southern Idaho, and northern California, provides ideal seed production sites. Chile serves as the primary South American seed producer. Other seed production sites include southern France, Israel, Italy, and Japan.

Differences in carrot cultivars: Chantenay, Danvers, Imperator, Nantes

While the root shape of carrots is essentially conical, the length may range from almost 2 to almost 20 inches (5 to over 50 centimeters). The desirable length averages between about four to almost ten inches (10 to 25 centimeters). Diameter ranges from under one-half inch to almost 4 inches (one to 10 centimeters). Temperature is one of the main factors that influences root length and shape. Warm day and cool night temperatures provide the perfect growing conditions for preferred lengths and shapes.

The four major types of western cultivated carrots are grouped according to their length and shape.

Red Core Chantenay is a popular variety. Their fastidious commercial cultivation, which nowadays is observed on organic farms within and beyond French borders, entails covering the crop with locally grown straw as a protection against frost and heat. After the harvest the straw is integrated into the soil as a soil conditioner.

Imperators are primarily consumed in the North American countries of Canada and the United States.

The rest of the world favors Chantenay, Danvers, and Nantes varieties.

Daucus carota has undergone amazing transformations in its journey from wild to cultivated life style. Western carrots are one of the most popular vegetables throughout the world. Who has not heard of carrots? Who does not recognize them? Who has not eaten them?

Carrots do not suffer from the same disdain from children as peas. Is it their cheery orange color? Is it their crunchiness? Is it the combination of their healthy benefits with a refreshingly fresh taste? Is it because of their versatility that ranges from an easy snack as sticks or baby carrots to an important stew ingredient to steamed vegetable platters contrasting beautifully with white cauliflower and green broccoli to carrot muffins to the incomparable dessert as carrot cake? Is Bugs Bunny responsible for their forbearance, if not their enthusiastic acceptance?

Whatever the reason, whatever the recipe, carrots have a worldwide following, especially in their orange garb. Would a carrot by any other color have achieved such prominence?

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

"Carrots of many colors", photo by Stephen Ausmus, courtesy of USDA Agricultural Research Service: US Department of Agriculture ARS, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carrots_of_many_colors.jpg; via USDA ARS Office of Communications @ https://www.ars.usda.gov/oc/images/photos/nov04/k11611-1/

wild carrot umbel: Alvesgaspar (Joaquim Alves Gaspar, Lisboa, Portugal), CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Daucus_carota_May_2008-1_edit.jpg

southern Lower Saxony, northwestern Germany: Christian Fischer, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Datei:Daucus3.jpg&filetimestamp=20050816171520

Naturpark Südheide (South Heath Nature Park), near Celle, Lower Saxony, northwestern Germany: Hajotthu, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wilde_Möhre_(Daucus_carota)_(4).JPG

oil on canvas by Joachim Anthonisz Wtewael (Uytewael) (1566-Aug 1, 1638), Staatliche Museen-Berlin: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kitchen_Scene-Joachim_Wtewael.jpg

oil on canvas by Vincenzo Campi (c.1536-1591), Galleria Estense, Modena: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vincenzo_Campi_-_Christ_in_the_House_of_Mary_and_Martha_-_WGA03831.jpg

oil on panel by Gerrit Dou (7 April 1613 – 9 February 1675) ~ Staatliches Museum Schwerin, northern Germany: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gerard_Dou_-_Woman_Peeling_Carrot_-_WGA06634.jpg

oil on canvas: Anonymous (Northern Netherlands); originally attributed to Pieter Cornelisz van Rijck (1568-1628): Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anonymous_-_Rich_man_and_Lazarus_ca._1610.jpg

"Carrot diversity": U.S.D.A. Agricultural Research Service, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CarrotDiversityLg.jpg

Chantenay Red Core heirloom carrots, scrubbed and washed fresh from garden: kirybabe, CC BY 2.0, via Flickr @ http://www.flickr.com/photos/kiry/3979271305/

Vilmorin et Andrieux, Les plantes potagères (1891), p. 75: Public Domain, via gallica.bnf.fr / Bibliothèque nationale de France @ https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k8630130c/f101.item

New darker-orange varieties produced by breeding program; also high in carotene levels: Public Domain, via USDA Agricultural Research Service @ http://www.ars.usda.gov/pandp/people/people.htm?personid=5186&pf=1

Carrots may be grown indoors: ccharmon, CC BY-ND 2.0, via Flickr @ http://www.flickr.com/photos/9439733@N02/2113627640/

oil on canvas by Gerrit Dou (April 7, 1613-February 9, 1675) ~ Musée du Louvre, Paris: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gerard_Dou_-_Woman_Pouring_Water_into_a_Jar_-_WGA06645.jpg

(1)  Umbel, leaves (2) root (3) spiny fruit (4) seed; Billeder af Nordens (1917-1923), Plate 254: Public Domain, via Biodiversity Heritage Library @ via Biodiversity Heritage Library @ https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/10459709; Biodiversity Heritage Library (BioDivLib), Public Domain, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/biodivlibrary/49157976142/

Figs. A: flowering plant; 1: umbel; 2: flower in bloom; 3: ovary cross section; 4-6: views of spiny fruit ~ 1 to 6 scale: Otto Thome, Flora (1905), Vol III, Plate 457, Public Domain, via Biodiversity Heritage Library @ https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/12308194

"A sea of Wild Carrot (Daucus carota)": Tim Heaton, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_sea_of_Wild_Carrot_(Daucus_carota)_-_geograph.org.uk_-_483815.jpg

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