Zigzag Goldenrod (Solidago flexicaulis): Midsummer's Sentinels Abuzz With Bees and Butterflies

There are around 100 different goldenrods worldwide. Although most goldenrods are New World natives, more than a dozen are native to Asia, Europe, and South America as well. With goldenrods distributed throughout the United States, they are familiar plants and probably have been seen, consciously or unconsciously, at least once in the lifetime of most Americans.

The roadside and the open fields near my rural home abound with goldenrods, especially zigzags in midsummer.

Zigzag goldenrod is also commonly known as broadleaf goldenrod or broad-leaved goldenrod. Its scientific name is Solidago flexicaulis.

The genus name, Solidago, is translated from Latin as "I make whole," being a combination of the adjective solidus, "firm, whole" with ago, the first person  singular of agere, "to do, make". This genus name reflects the stature of goldenrods as plants which bring about wholeness

Its common name of zigzag and its species name, flexicaulis (Latin: flexus, "bending, curve" + caulis, "stalk, stem" [from Greek καυλοσ, kaulos, "stem"]), are derived from the characteristic shape of this goldenrod's stem. Nature writer and scientific historian Neltje Blanchan De Graff Doubleday (October 23, 1865 – February 21, 1918) described the stem, in its angled peregrination, as growing "as if waveringly uncertain of the proper direction to take . . ." (Blanchan, p. 27)

The other common name of broadleaf recognizes the characteristic size of this plant's leaves.

As a perennial (Latin: per, "through" + annus, "year"), zigzag goldenrods live for more than two years.

Zigzag goldenrod occurs natively in five provinces of eastern Canada: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec, and Prince Edward Island.

In the United States, zigzag goldenrod is native to the nation's capital of Washington, D.C. as well as thirty-three states west of the Rocky Mountains:  Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Maryland, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.

Zigzag goldenrod is found natively throughout the state of Connecticut.

In three states zigzag goldenrod is distributed natively throughout, with the exception of one county:

• Maine's southeastern county of Sagadahoc,
• New Hampshire's southeastern county of Hillsborough, and
• Vermont's northwestern county of Grand Isle.

In four states zigzag goldenrod appears in only one county:

• northeastern county of Doniphan in Kansas,
• northeastern county of Morehouse in Louisiana,
• southeastern county of Gass in Nebraska, and
• northern county of Providence in Rhode Island.

Zigzag goldenrod is listed as a threatened species in the state of Rhode Island.

The herbaceous perennial numbers as one of four species in the sunflower family (Asteraceae) with state status of ST (state threatened) in the 2015 Rhode Island Wildlife Action Plan (WAP), published by the Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management's (DEM). In addition to Solidago flexicaulis, the WAP's List of Rare Plants in Rhode Island identifies Cirsium horridulum var. horridulum (Yellow Thistle), Rudbeckia laciniata var. laciniata (Green-headed Coneflower) and Solidago latissimifolia (Elliott's Goldenrod) share the threatened status with Solidago flexicaulis on the WAP's List of Rare Plants in Rhode Island (pages 64-65, Appendix 1d).

The threatened status previously had been assigned to the same four species on the 2007 List of Rare Plants in Rhode Island (page 63, Appendix 1d).

The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Plant Hardiness Zone Map, which classes plants according to the coldest temperature at which they remain viable, places zigzags in Zone 4 (-30° to -20° Fahrenheit; -34° to -29° Celsius) to Zone 9 (20° to 30° F.; -7° to -1° C.).

While zigzag goldenrod enjoys the sun-dappled shelter of forest and woodland habitats, this adaptable plant also is found natively in fields and other open areas. While zigzags thrive in well-drained soils with medium moisture, they tolerate not only dry soils but also clay.

Zigzag goldenrods easily habituate to private and public landscapes, from roadsides to wildflower gardens.

Appetizing only to desperate, famished deer, zigzags discourage deer visitors either as border plants or in a shaded area with other deer resistant plants such as heart-leaved aster (Symphyotrichum cordifolium), wild columbine (Aquilegia canadensis), and bluestem goldenrod (Solidago caesia).

Zigzag's presence is desirable in specially themed plantings, such as for tolerance of:

• clay soils, with their wetness in spring and dry hardness in summer,
• juglone, the allelopathic (Greek: ἀλλήλων, allélón, "of one another" + πάθος, pathos, "suffering") chemical secreted by black walnut trees (Juglones nigra), which kills, stunts, or wilts non-resistant plants within a toxic zone of at least 49 to 65 feet (15 to 20 meters) from the tree,
• partially or fully shaded garden.

Zigzags may be grown from seeds or from rhizomes (Greek; ῥίζα, rhiza, "root, rootstock"), which are underground stems sprouting roots and shoots.

In gardens zigzags are known to self-seed.

Zigzag goldenrods may grow to a height of 40 to 48 inches (100 to 120 centimeters). Their spread generally measures 24 to 40 inches (60 to 100 centimeters).

The wideness of zigzag's leaves is a key identification feature. These leaves may easily have a width of 4 inches (10 centimeters) and a length of 6 inches (15 centimeters). Typical of many Solidagos, leaves further up the stem are smaller than those near the base of zigzag plants.

Another key identification feature is that zigzag leaves are attached to the stem by a stalk, botanically termed a petiole (Latin: petiolus, "little foot"). In contrast, some species, such as anise-scented goldenrod (Solidago odora) and blue-stemmed goldenrod (Solidago caesia), have sessile leaves which are directly attached to the stem without the intermediary of a small stalk.

Leaves are shaped ovately (Latin: ovatus, "egg-shaped") in an oval reminiscent of eggs with a broad base at the attached end and with a long, tapered point at the free end.

The venation, or vein arrangement, on zigzag leaves is known as pinnate (Latin: pinnatus, "feathered, winged"). One main vein, the midrib, extends from the base to the tip. Smaller veins branch, in a pair-like manner, from opposite sides of the midrib.

Zigzag goldenrod's light green stem commonly bends back and forth at about a 45° angle in a noticeable zigzag between leaves and flowers. Although quite rare, zigzag goldenrod plants are sometimes found with straight stems with nary a zigzag.

From July to October, zigzag's starry flowers blaze in shades of yellow which twinkle against the expansive greenness of its wide leaves.

These delicate golden twinklings grow in clusters along the upper part of the stem, which is the typical inflorescence (Latin: inflorescere, "to begin to flower") of members of the aster-daisy-sunflower family, Asteraceae.

The inflorescence consists of a flower head, known as a capitulum (Latin: capitulum, "little head"). Each flower head measures about 1/4 of an inch (0.6 centimeters) across.

In the center of each capitulum are five to eight disc florets, which are small tubular flowers. Surrounding the central disc florets are five to eight ray florets, which are narrow flowers resembling single petals. Each ray floret measures up to 1/8 of an inch (0.3 centimeters) in length.

As a member of the Asteraceae family, zigzags produce fruit which is classed as a cypsela (Greek: κυψέλη, kupsele, “hollow vessel”). The outside of each zigzag cypsela is brown, dry, and rather thick and tough. These fruits measure about 1/10 of an inch (0.25 centimeters) in length.

Usually wisps, known as pappi, are attached to the cypsela and thereby encourage dispersal by air currents and breezes.

Each zigzag fruit contains only one seed.

Native Americans valued this New World perennial in therapeutic remedies.

The Chippewa (Ojibwe [unknown meaning]), who originated traditionally around the Saint Lawrence River in eastern Canada, chewed the plant's roots to soothe a sore throat.

Traditionally linked with the Finger Lakes in west central New York, the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee, "They Are Building a Long House"), treated gastrointestinal problems, such as biliousness (excessive secretions of bile by the liver), with a decoction (Latin: decoquere, "to boil down") of zigzags. Water-soluble substances were extracted from the plant through boiling.

Traditionally originating around the Straits of Mackinac between Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, the Menominee (Mamaceqtaw, "the people"), valued zigzags as:

• an analgesic (Greek: ἀν-, an-, “without” + ἄλγησις, algēsis, “sense of pain”) and
• a hemostatic (Greek: αἷμα, haima, "flowing blood" + στάσις, stasis, "stopping, halting").

A snuffy compound of dried, powdered zigzag leaves was insufflated (Latin: insufflare, "to blow into/on"), that is, inhaled, or inserted into the nostrils either to treat a headache or to stop a nosebleed.

Traditionally migrating from northeastern Canada with the Chippewa and Ottawa (Odawe, "traders"), the Potawatomi (Bodéwadmi, "keepers of the hearth fire"), traversed the eastern shore of Lake Huron and settled in areas of northern Michigan. The Potawatomi esteemed zigzags as a febrifuge (fébrifuge [French], from Latin: febris, “fever” + fugare, “to put to flight”). An infusion was derived from steeping an entire zigzag plant to extract its soluble essences.

Zigzags are popular residents in their habitats. Their synecology (Greek: σύν, syn, “with” + oικoλoγία, ecologia, “house” + “study”), which identifies animals and plants which regularly coexist with zigzags, reveals their popularity as a food source and for pollination. Zigzag is no exception to the rule that Solidago plants attract hordes of butterflies and serve as host plants for caterpillar incarnations.

Regular pollinators include solitary ground nesters, with nests burrowed by a single queen, such as:

• mining bees (genus Andrena), usually unobtrusive in dark brown to black colors with fine light brown, yellow, or whitish abdominal bands, and
• cellophane bees (genus Colletes), often indistinguishable from mining bees apart from cellophanes' dramatic black and white abdominal banding and their generally larger size.

Zigzag nectar seekers include such well-known, dramatically hued butterfly favorites as monarchs (Danaus plexippus) and viceroys (Limenitis archippus). Nevertheless, unassumingly hued butterflies are also attracted to zigzags, which reliably emblazon the landscape with conspicuous yellow brightness from midsummer into autumn.

New World native butterflies which nectar from zigzags encompass:

• eastern tailed blue (Cupido comyntas),
• purplish copper (Lycaena helloides),
• pearl crescent (Phyciodes tharos),
• grey hairstreak (Strymon melinus),
• Milbert’s tortoiseshell (Aglais milberti), and
• clouded sulphur (Colias philodice).

Cupido comyntas is commonly known as the Eastern tailed-blue butterfly.

Eastern tailed-blues are found in southeastern Canada, and they range from the eastern United States westward into western North Dakota, central Colorado, and central Texas. Eastern tailed-blues also range from southeastern Arizona, western New Mexico, and west Texas southwards as far as Costa Rica.

Sunny, open areas serve as favored habitats.

Eastern tailed-blues have a wingspan of 7/8 to 1-1/8 inches (2.2 to 2.9 centimeters).

Eastern tailed-blues are distinguished by a narrow tail trailing from each hindwing.

Male uppersides are iridescent blue. Summer females are brown whereas spring females display blue at wing bases.

Pale grey undersides of hindwings are each brightened with three large orange spots and are dotted with black spots.

In addition to zigzags, Eastern tailed-blues, as low fliers, frequent flowering plants of short stature, such as asters (genus Aster) and wild strawberries (Fragaria virginiana).

Lycaena helloides is commonly known as purplish copper butterfly.

Purplish coppers are found in the area of the Great Lakes, ranging westward in Canada into British Columbia and in the United States through the northern Midwest and northern plains as well as ranging south to Baja California (Estado Libre y Soberano de Baja California), Mexico’s northernmost and westernmost state.

Purplish coppers are attracted to openness and wetness. They are drawn to open fields and roadsides as well as to marshes, wet meadows, streamsides, and valleys.

Purplish coppers have a wingspan of 1-1/8 to 1-1/2 inches (3 to 3.8 centimeters).

An iridescent purple sheen in males sparkles amidst orange-brown uppersides in good sunlight. Brown uppersides in females are mainly doused in orange.

The margin of female and male hindwings is marked distinctively with wide, orange zigzaggings.

In addition to zigzag goldenrod, purplish copper feast on butterflyweed (Asclepias tuberosa) and yarrows (genus Achillea).

Phyciodes tharos is commonly known as the pearl crescent butterfly.

Pearl crescents flit ubiquitously across North America, stretching from southeastern Alberta in western Canada southwards through Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and southeastern California and further south into Mexico. In addition to the prairie province of Alberta, pearl crescents range eastward through Canada’s other two prairie provinces, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, and into southern Ontario and radiating there throughout the eastern United States.

Pearl crescents are attracted to openness, from fields and pastures to roadsides, open pine woods, and vacant lots.

Pearl crescents have a wingspan of 1-1/4 to 1-3/4 inches (3.2 to 4.5 centimeters).

Considerable variation is found in the patterned coloration of pearl crescents. Generally, orange uppersides have black borders and fine black markings. The underside of the hindwings, which shades from orange brown to mottled grey brown, displays a distinctive white crescent on the outer edge.

In addition to zigzag goldenrod, pearl crescents favor asters (genus Aster), purple coneflowers (Echinacea purpurea), and zinnias (genus Zinnia), although basically pearl crescents appreciate any and all nectars in their path.

Strymon melinus is commonly known as the grey hairstreak butterfly.

Grey hairstreaks are multi-continental occupants. Their homeland ranges from southern Canada across North America and Central America to Venezuela in northern South America. Grey hairstreaks inhabit the entire continental United States (“the lower 48”).

Shying away from forested sites, grey hairstreaks enjoy openness, such as open fields, gardens, parks, and vacant lots.

Grey hairstreaks have a wingspan of 7/8 to 1-3/8 inches (2.2 to 3.5 centimeters).

A slender tail angles down from each hindwing.

A large orange to red spot, which flanks the edge of each hindwing above the trailing tail, blazes vividly against the blue-grey monotone of the uppersides.

Undersides vary in greyness, from the darkness of spring/autumn to the paleness of summer.

In addition to zigzag goldenrod, grey hairstreaks relish oregano (Origanum vulgare), sunflowers (genus Helianthus), and veronicas (genus Veronica).

Aglais milberti is commonly known as Milbert’s tortoiseshell or as fire-rim tortoiseshell.

Milbert’s tortoiseshells range from southern Alaska and southern Canada southwestward to California, Nevada, and New Mexico and eastwards to the Atlantic Province of Newfoundland, then swerving southeastward as far as West Virginia.

Milbert’s tortoiseshells are attracted to moist habitats, especially marshes, moist pastures, and wet woodland areas.

Milbert’s tortoiseshells have a wingspan of 1-5/8 to 2-1/2 inches (4.2 to 6.3 centimeters).

Forewing tips are characteristically squared off. Upperside blackness is brightened with orange to red epaulets. Inset next to narrow black wing edgings, wide bands of orange to yellow gradations splash across the blackness.

Blue spots usually flash amidst the black edging of each hindwing.

In addition to zigzag goldenrod, Milbert’s tortoiseshells delight in lilacs (genus Syringa) and thistles (family Asteraceae).

Colias philodice is commonly known as the clouded sulphur butterfly.

Clouded sulphurs are familiar with vast expanses of North America. They range from Alaska southward through central and southeast Canada and throughout the “lower 48” of the United States, with the exception of most of California, south Texas, and most of Florida.

Favoring open habitats, clouded sulphurs thrive in the seemingly infinite variety of open areas, from lawns and meadows to gardens and parks to roadsides and fields of alfalfa and clover.

Clouded sulphurs have a wingspan of 1-1/2 to 2-3/4 inches (3.8 to 7 centimeters).

The bright, clear yellow uppersides of males are edged with solid black. Male forewings are marked with dark spots. Their hindwings sport a silver spot with an orange-pink rim which often is doubled.

Females either are yellow with an uneven black edging dotted with yellow spots, or they are greenish white in their albino, or white, form.

In addition to zigzag goldenrod, clouded sulphurs delight in asters (genus Aster) and phloxes (genus Phlox).

Zigzag goldenrod is as intrinsic to the landscape of eastern and midwestern North America as the Atlantic Ocean, the Great Lakes, and the mighty Mississippi River. This New World native is kin to sweet goldenrod (Solidago odora), whose anise-scented leaves joined with betony (genus Stachys), New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus), and red clover (Trifolium pretense) in the uniquely colonial, flavorful beverage known as "liberty tea", imbibed with patriotic zeal after the Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773. As a goldenrod, zigzags belong to a genus, Solidago, which enjoys historic and prehistoric respect as a purveyor of health through therapeutic remedies.

Throughout the summer and autumn, across Canada and the United States, the many varieties of goldenrod steadfastly and lengthily bloom. So many Solidago plants are New World natives that an American or a Canadian who has not seen, consciously or unconsciously, a goldenrod at some point in North American life would be a rarity indeed.

Zigzags live up to their heritage. They resplendently embellish the landscape of eastern North America. Their therapeutic qualities remain intact and extolled.

Moreover, the uncomplicated splendor of their golden flowers and green foliage as they zigzag up the plant's stem does not go unnoticed, not by Americans or Canadians, not by other members of the animal kingdom. Butterflies are attracted to the timing of zigzag's flowering. Autumn is not too far behind midsummer. When these crooked sentinels blaze golden in July, the pleasures of summer are being transferred to the promises of autumn's breathtaking hues. Butterflies rely upon zigzags to escort them through this time of transition in the cycle of life. Just as zigzags have persisted in the environmentally challenged human landscape, they also continue to flourish in the interactive environment of some of nature's loveliest, most ephemeral inhabitants.

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

USDA Soil Conservation Service, Midwest Wetland Flora (Lincoln NE: Midwest National Technical Center, 1989): Robert H. Mohlenbrock @ USDA-National Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), Public Domain, via USDA PLANTS Database @ https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=SOFL2

Canadian nativity: maritime and eastern provinces: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Public Domain, via USDA PLANTS Database @ https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=SOFL2&mapType;=nativity

C & O Canal National Historical Park, Montgomery County, Maryland's Capital Region: Fritz Flohr Reynolds (FritzFlohrReynolds), CC BY SA 2.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/fritzflohrreynolds/7945821346/

Linnaeus Teaching Gardens, Woodward Park, Tulsa, Oklahoma: Caroline Sanstead (Suz-tan), CC BY ND 2.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/34085053@N08/3449292786/

Solidago flexicàulis L. Zig-zag or Broad-leaved Golden-rod; Britton and Brown, Illustrated Flora (1913), Vol III, p.383 (Fig.4216): Public Domain, via Biodiversity Heritage Library @ http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/812344

Zigzag or Broad-Leaved Goldenrod Solidago flexicaulis; Homer House, Wild Flowers (1918), Plate 236 (between pp. 298-299): Public Domain, via Biodiversity Heritage Library @ http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/19083154

Oak Openings Preserve Metropark, nw Ohio: Benny Mazur, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brown_Hooded_Owlet_caterpillar.jpg

Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge, Fort Morgan Peninsula, Mobile Bay, Alabama: Keenan Adams/USFWS Southeast Region (USFWS/Southeast), CC BY 2.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/usfwssoutheast/6307262324/; Public Domain, via USFWS National Digital Library @ https://digitalmedia.fws.gov/digital/collection/natdiglib/id/29220/

Juist (East Frisian island), southern North Sea: 4028mdk09, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Erlenzeisig_in_Nadelbaum.jpg

Mer Bleue Conservation Area, Ottawa, Ontario, east central Canada: D. Gordon E. Robertson, CC BY SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eastern_Tailed-blue.jpg

August 2006, Canada: Hectonichus, CC BY SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lycaenidae_-_Everes_comyntas.JPG

Blanco Creek, Colorado: ALAN SCHMIERER, Public Domain, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/sloalan/9424454288/; via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:COPPER,_PURPLISH_(lycaena_helloides)_(8-7-08)_fem,_blanco_creek,_co_(9424454288).jpg

"Composite photograph showing the variability in the Pearl Crescent species.": Kenneth Dwain Harrelson (HaarFager), CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phyciodes_tharos_6.jpg

Amistad National Recreation Area, Val Verde County, southwestern Texas: Clinton & Charles Robertson, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Strymon_melinus.jpg

Glen House, northern New Hampshire: Tony Hisgett (ahisgett), CC BY 2.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/hisgett/6234624921/

Moonlight Bay Bedrock Beach, Wisconsin State Natural Area #233; Door County, easternmost Wisconsin: Joshua Mayer, CC BY SA 2.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/wackybadger/24983562842/

albino Clouded Sulphur in October: Megan McCarty, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albino_Clouded_Sulphur,_MM158.jpg

Interstate State Park, Polk County, northwestern Wisconsin: Aaron Carlson, CC BY SA 3.0, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/59003943@N00/6114793484/

Crescent Beach State Park, Cape Elizabeth, Cumberland County, southern Maine: Katherine Whittemore/USFWS Northeast Region, Public Domain via USFWS National Digital Library @ https://digitalmedia.fws.gov/digital/collection/natdiglib/id/13212/

outdoor exhibition, Botanická zahrada Troja (Troja Botanical Garden), Praha-Troja, Czech Republic: František Pleva, Public Domain, via BioLib @ https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxonimage/id262901/?taxonid=219508&type=1

Blanchan, Neltje. Wild Flowers Worth Knowing. Adapted by Asa Don Dickinson from Nature's Garden. Little Nature Library. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1917.

• Available via HathiTrust at:  http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/008594789
• Available via Project Gutenberg at:  http://www.gutenberg.org/files/8866/8866-h/8866-h.htm

Britton, Nathaniel Lord, and Addison Brown. An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Canada, and the British Possessions, from Newfoundland to the parallel of the Southern Boundary of Virginia, and from the Atlantic Ocean Westward to the 102d Meridian. Volume III: Gentianaceae to Compositae Gentian to Thistle. 2nd ed. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913.

• Available via Biodiversity Heritage Library at:  http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/15708

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• Available at: http://www.riwps.org/newsletter-07-01.pdf

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• Available at:  http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/Colias-philodice

"Eastern Tailed-Blue Cupido comyntas (Godart, [1824])." Butterflies and Moths of North America. Butterfly and Moth Information Network, Kelly Lotts and Thomas Naberhaus. Web. www.butterfliesandmoths.org

• Available at:  http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/Cupido-comyntas

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• Available at:  http://academics.hamilton.edu/foodforthought/Our_Research_files/goldenrod.pdf

"Gray Hairstreak Strymon melinus (Hübner, 1818)." Butterflies and Moths of North America. Butterfly and Moth Information Network, Kelly Lotts and Thomas Naberhaus. Web. www.butterfliesandmoths.org

• Available at:  http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/Strymon-melinus

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• Available at:  http://www.restoringthelandscape.com/2010/08/caterpillars-and-their-look-alikes.html

Holm, Heather. "Native Plant of the Week: Zigzag Goldenrod ~ Solidago flexicaulis." Restoring the Landscape with Native Plants. Friday, September 23, 2011. Heather Holm. Web. www.restoringthelandscape.com

• Available at: http://www.restoringthelandscape.com/2011/09/native-plant-of-week-zigzaggoldenrod.html

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• Available via Biodiversity Heritage Library at:  http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/62995

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• Available via Biodiversity Heritage Library at: https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/358900

"Milbert's Tortoiseshell Aglais milberti (Godart, 1819)." Butterflies and Moths of North America. Butterfly and Moth Information Network, Kelly Lotts and Thomas Naberhaus. Web. www.butterfliesandmoths.org

• Available at:  http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/Aglais-milberti

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Ortho's All About Attracting Hummingbirds and Butterflies. Des Moines IA: Meredith Books, 2001.

Mohlenbrock, Robert H. "Zigzag Goldenrod Solidago flexicaulis L." Midwestern Wetland Flora: Field Office Guide to Plant Species. Lincoln NE: USDA Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Midwest National Technical Center, 1989.

• Available via Biodiversity Heritage Library @ https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47569053

"Pearl Crescent Phyciodes tharos (Drury, 1773)." Butterflies and Moths of North America. Butterfly and Moth Information Network, Kelly Lotts and Thomas Naberhaus. Web. www.butterfliesandmoths.org

• Available at:  http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/Phyciodes-tharos

"Purplish Copper Lycaena helloides (Boisduval, 1852)." Butterflies and Moths of North America. Butterfly and Moth Information Network, Kelly Lotts and Thomas Naberhaus. Web. www.butterfliesandmoths.org

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